Problem-Solving and Decision Making
High-Yield Summary
- Mental set (applying past strategies to a new problem) and functional fixedness (can't see a nontraditional use for an object) are common obstacles to problem-solving.
- Four core strategies: trial and error (try until one works, few solutions only), algorithms (a reliable formula/procedure), deductive reasoning (general rules → specific conclusion), inductive reasoning (specific instances → general conclusion).
- Heuristics are fast mental shortcuts: availability heuristic (ease of recall) and representativeness heuristic (fit to a prototype, which can cause the base rate fallacy — ignoring statistical info in favor of stereotype).
- Confirmation bias (favoring belief-confirming info) can violate the disconfirmation principle (a failed solution should be discarded) and reinforce belief perseverance (can't reject a belief despite contrary evidence).
- Intuition = acting on an unsupported 'feeling.' The recognition-primed decision model (Klein) explains how experts match a situation to a learned pattern, often automatically. Emotion (felt or anticipated) shapes decisions too.
- Two competing intelligence models: Gardner's multiple intelligences (7 independent types) vs. Spearman's g factor (single general intelligence, basis of IQ testing, Stanford-Binet normed around 100).
- Intellectual ability variation stems from genes, environment, education, parental expectations, socioeconomic status, and nutrition.
Key Terms
- Mental set
- Tendency to approach similar problems using strategies that worked before, even when they don't fit the new problem.
- Functional fixedness
- Inability to see a nontraditional use for an object (e.g., a coin as a screwdriver).
- Base rate fallacy
- Using prototypical/stereotypical factors to judge likelihood while ignoring actual statistical information.
- Disconfirmation principle
- A solution that fails during testing should be discarded.
- Belief perseverance
- Inability to reject a belief even with clear contrary evidence.
- Recognition-primed decision model
- Klein's model: experienced decision-makers match a situation to a learned pattern, often automatically, rather than weighing every option.
Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
| Deductive (top-down) | Inductive (bottom-up) |
|---|---|
| Starts from general rules, draws a specific conclusion | Starts from specific instances, generalizes to a broader conclusion |
Availability vs. Representativeness Heuristic
| Availability Heuristic | Representativeness Heuristic |
|---|---|
| Judges likelihood by how easily similar instances come to mind | Categorizes by fit to a prototypical/stereotypical image |
| — | Can produce the base rate fallacy |
Gardner vs. Spearman: Competing Models of Intelligence
| Gardner — Multiple Intelligences | Spearman — g Factor |
|---|---|
| Seven independent types: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal | A single general intelligence factor underlies correlated performance across cognitive tasks |
| Western culture especially values linguistic and logical-mathematical | Basis of IQ testing; Stanford-Binet test scores normally distributed around 100 |
Common MCAT Trap
- It's specifically the representativeness heuristic, not the availability heuristic, that produces the base rate fallacy.
- Confirmation bias is the filtering process (seeking belief-confirming information); belief perseverance is the outcome (refusing to abandon the belief despite evidence).
- Gardner and Spearman are competing answers to the same question, not two parts of one theory — don't combine them.
- Deductive reasoning moves general → specific; inductive reasoning moves specific → general — the direction is the whole distinction.
Quick Recall
A person can't see that a coin could work as a screwdriver because they only think of it as money. What's this called?
A juror judges a defendant is guilty because they 'look like' a criminal, ignoring the actual statistical evidence. Which heuristic and which fallacy?
An experienced firefighter makes a fast, effective decision under pressure by matching the situation to a pattern from past experience, without weighing every option. What model describes this?
Which theory of intelligence is the basis for IQ testing and the Stanford-Binet test?
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